Commerce tariffs are again — reshaping markets and elevating vital questions for traders. In early 2025, the US enacted broad-based tariffs on almost all buying and selling companions, reversing a long time of liberalization. The outcome: renewed volatility, geopolitical pressure, and a transparent crucial for portfolio resilience. Whereas in the present day’s headlines really feel new, the dynamics aren’t.
Over the previous 150 years, the US has seen a number of high-tariff regimes — from the put up–Civil Warfare increase to the Smoot-Hawley fallout. The worldwide economic system has modified, however investor habits and threat pricing stay ruled by acquainted patterns.
On this weblog, we look at these classes by means of a data-driven lens, leveraging our proprietary database of 150 years of asset and financial information—probably the most complete long-term dataset on tariffs, financial development, and funding returns accessible up to now ([3], [4], [5]). Our goal is to not recommend that historical past will repeat itself, however to uncover patterns that rhyme — offering context for traders looking for to navigate in the present day’s uncertainty. The proof exhibits that whereas tariffs can introduce stress into markets, systematic fairness elements, significantly low-volatility, have traditionally supplied stability and added worth in periods of commerce disruption. For traders going through a resurgence in protectionist coverage, these classes are each well timed and actionable.
The Historical past of Tariffs
Reveals 1 and a pair of hint the US by means of a number of tariff regimes since 1875. From protectionism to liberalization and again once more, tariff coverage has mirrored broader political and financial forces. This long-run view gives necessary context for in the present day’s shifts.
Exhibit 1: US Efficient Tariff Fee Since 1875
Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. The efficient US tariff price is measured as customs obligation income as a % of products imports. The pattern interval is 1875-2024.
Exhibit 2: Historic Tariff Traits
Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods.
1875-1913: Protectionist Peak
Within the Civil Warfare the US carried out the Morrill Tariff in 1861, elevating common tariff charges on dutiable commodities to roughly 47% to generate income for the Civil Warfare. From the post-Civil Warfare period (which was 1861–1865) to World Warfare I, tariffs remained excessive to guard flourishing industries. Tariffs on dutiable imports averaged between 30% and 50%, reflecting the Republican Social gathering’s dedication to industrial improvement by means of commerce obstacles, amounting to efficient tariffs of round 30%. Notable laws contains the Morrill Tariff (1861), the McKinley Tariff (1890), and the Dingley Tariff (1897), the latter of which marked the peak of protectionism on this period.
1913–Twenties: First Liberalization
The Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, enacted underneath President Woodrow Wilson, marked a turning level by lowering the fundamental tariff charges. As well as, many uncooked supplies and groceries have been added to the freed from tariff checklist. This shift was pushed by Democratic efforts to advertise freer commerce and encourage American producers to supply extra environment friendly and turn into extra aggressive with their costs, decreasing the common value for customers.
Nineteen Thirties: Smoot-Hawley Period
The 1929 inventory market crash triggered a worldwide downturn, prompting international locations to guard home industries. In 1930, the US handed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, elevating duties on over 20,000 imports—pushing common tariff charges to 45%. As an alternative of stabilizing the economic system, the coverage sparked world retaliation, with main buying and selling companions like Canada, the UK, and Germany imposing countermeasures. The outcome: a commerce battle and a 60% drop in world commerce by 1933.
Put up-WWII to Nineteen Seventies: Commerce Liberalization Period
After World Warfare II, U.S. coverage pivoted towards multilateral liberalization by means of the Common Settlement on Tariffs and Commerce (GATT). By means of negotiation rounds, leading to over 100 agreements, together with Geneva, Dillon, Kennedy, and Tokyo, common tariffs on industrial items fell dramatically. By the Nineteen Seventies, US tariffs have been round 10% or decrease, reflecting a worldwide development towards freer commerce.
1990S–2000s: NAFTA and WTO Integration
With the signing of NAFTA (1992) coming into drive (1994) and the U.S. becoming a member of the WTO (1995), tariff obstacles declined even additional. By the 2010s, common tariffs on all US imports had dropped to roughly 1.5–2.5%, reflecting the height of US commerce openness.
2018–2020s: Strategic Protectionism
Starting in 2018, the Trump administration imposed a ten% blanket tariff on imports, together with extra levies focusing on international locations with giant commerce surpluses with the US, notably China. These measures marked a shift towards selective protectionism and initiated retaliatory tariffs by main buying and selling companions.
2025: Escalation of Broad Tariff Coverage
In 2025, the US enacted its most important commerce shift in a century: a ten% blanket tariff on all imports, plus an added levy based mostly on every nation’s bilateral items deficit. Although a 90-day grace interval softened the rollout, ongoing exemptions and reversals have created persistent coverage uncertainty. The impression has been most acute for China, the first goal, with retaliatory tariffs from Beijing following shortly. The unstable and politically charged setting has difficult forecasting and elevated warning amongst world traders.
The risk now hanging over the worldwide economic system is that President Trump is orchestrating a return to the Nineteen Thirties, when the notorious Smoot-Hawley tariffs set off a sequence response of worldwide retaliation, typically blamed for deepening the Despair. This transfer contrasts sharply with the multilateral liberalization development of the earlier a long time. These regimes of US commerce tariffs additionally impression common world tariffs internationally, as different international locations both had excessive tariffs (like European international locations within the 19th century) or retaliated (for instance through the Smoot-Hawley period). The determine under, taken from Bas, 2012 reveals the common degree of world tariffs [2].
Exhibit 3: Unweighted World Common Personal Tariff, 35 Nations, %
Bas, M. (2012). Enter-trade liberalization and agency export choices: Proof from Argentina. Journal of Growth Economics, 97(2), 81-493.
Tariffs are extensively considered impediments to commerce openness. By rising the price of cross-border transactions, excessive tariffs have a tendency to limit the circulation of products and companies, thereby decreasing a rustic’s trade-to-GDP ratio—an ordinary measure of openness [2]. Exhibit 3 illustrates the historic evolution of US commerce openness, outlined because the sum of imports and exports as a share of GDP, with key tariff regimes highlighted.
Exhibit 4: Historic Commerce Openness
GlobalMacroDatabase, Yale BudgetLab, Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. The determine exhibits the historic timeseries habits of the 10-year centered shifting common of U.S. Commerce Openness (based mostly on the sum of US Imports and Exports as a share of GDP). The bars highlighted intervals of excessive tariffs. Tariff charges are calculated as the full income from import duties divided by the worth of complete imports in the identical 12 months. The pattern interval is 1875-2024.
The info exhibits clear declines in openness in periods of elevated protectionism, notably the late nineteenth century and the Smoot-Hawley period of the Nineteen Thirties. Conversely, commerce openness expanded considerably through the put up–World Warfare II liberalization section and thru the multilateral agreements of the Nineties and 2000s. This development started to reverse within the late 2010s, as focused tariffs—significantly these imposed on China throughout President Trump’s first time period—curtailed world commerce flows. The current escalation in 2025 threatens to speed up this reversal, underscoring the persistent pressure between protectionist insurance policies and world financial integration.
What Does the Knowledge Inform Us About Tariffs and Financial Development?
A primary order query for traders is what’s the impression of tariffs on financial development? Whereas intuitive arguments typically hyperlink protectionism with weaker financial outcomes, the historic information current a extra nuanced image. Tutorial analysis over the previous a long time has yielded blended outcomes, with some intervals displaying optimistic correlations between excessive tariffs and robust development— particularly earlier than World Warfare II — whereas post-war information level to slower development in high-tariff regimes.
This phenomenon has been termed the “tariff–development paradox,” first recognized by Bairoch (1972), who famous that economies within the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries typically grew quickly regardless of, and even alongside, elevated tariff ranges[1]. On the similar time, economical channels recommend tariffs traditionally raised enter prices and have completed little to spice up productiveness, thereby doubtlessly hindering financial development originating from different historic sources like migration, restoration of the good despair, or productiveness will increase coming from main improvements.
To offer additional shade on the connection between efficient tariffs and financial development we plot in Exhibit 5 the annual US actual GDP development charges since 1875, with the earlier excessive tariff intervals highlighted in gray.
Exhibit 5: US Tariffs Vs. Financial Development
GlobalMacroDatabase, Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. The efficient US tariff price is measured as customs obligation income as a share of products imports. The bars highlighted intervals of excessive tariffs. US financial development is measured by the ten years (centered) common development price in actual GDP.
We are able to see that US financial development was marginally greater throughout excessive tariff regimes. In the course of the Protectionist Peak’ interval, the economic system skilled a excessive however step by step declining development price of three.9% on common, adopted by a big drop through the Nice Despair. Subsequently, development recovered and averaged above 5% through the ‘Smoot-Hawley’ period.
After that, tariffs declined, however financial development fell to ranges under these seen through the protectionist peak — dropping from 3.2% within the put up–World Warfare II interval to 2.2% because the begin of the twenty first century. Furthermore, proof suggests a prisoner’s dilemma for particular person international locations. If a single nation imposes tariffs in a focused and well-designed method, it could reap some advantages. Nonetheless, if others retaliate, the result usually worsens for all.
Leaders contemplating a shift towards commerce openness face a strategic sport, not an remoted resolution. Defection by main economies — elevating tariffs unilaterally — typically leads others to observe go well with. In the long run, solely cooperation serves the most effective pursuits of the “prisoners.” Therefore, the worldwide context and worldwide responses matter considerably, with a basic ‘prisoner’s final result’ seemingly if everybody begins retaliating. Good luck, politics.
Does this imply we will count on tariffs to keep away from harming — and even benefitting — financial development going ahead? We take a purely data-driven historic perspective, however we emphasize that in the present day’s economies differ in necessary methods from these of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Most notably, the worldwide economic system is now way more interconnected, with intricate worldwide provide chains, more and more complicated and tech-driven merchandise, and a US economic system that depends extra closely on the export of companies than items.
If the aim of protectionism is to enhance commerce balances, historical past gives some precedent, however on the similar time, world commerce has turn into a a lot bigger share of world GDP. This implies that the chance value of retreating behind protectionist partitions could also be significantly better in the present day than it was up to now.
Tariffs and Funding Returns
Subsequent, we flip to the impression of tariffs on funding returns. Our distinctive and intensive historic dataset permits us to look at this query by means of a purely data-driven lens, specializing in actual returns throughout each asset courses and fairness elements. We analyze key conventional asset courses accessible over an extended pattern — equities, bonds, and gold — in addition to basic fairness type elements together with measurement, worth, momentum, low threat, and high quality. These elements symbolize core constructing blocks in traders’ alternative units. We conduct three predominant analyses: (i) a pattern break up based mostly on earlier tariff episodes recognized in Exhibit 2; (ii) a pattern break up based mostly on the extent of US efficient tariffs; and (iii) a pattern break up based mostly on commerce openness. Exhibit 6 exhibits the outcomes when zooming into the most important tariff regimes recognized above.
Exhibit 6: Actual Funding Returns Throughout Tariff Regimes
Baltussen et al. (2023), Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. Knowledge from January 1875 till December 2024, * aside from High quality which begins in 1940, High quality is unnoticed for intervals with restricted observations. Returns are inflation-adjusted, in annual phrases, in USD and averaged throughout tariff regimes.
The outcomes present that equities carried out nicely throughout earlier high-tariff intervals, with annual actual returns averaging 5.3% through the Protectionist Peak and 5.1% through the Smoot-Hawley period –each broadly consistent with the long-term common over the previous 150 years. Bond returns have been extra modest, at 2.7% and 1.1% respectively, whereas gold posted detrimental returns through the 1875–1913 interval. Fairness issue portfolios persistently outperformed the broad market, including roughly 2.0% in each high-tariff regimes.
Notably, low-volatility stood out through the 1875–1913 interval, whereas the scale issue delivered significantly sturdy outcomes through the 1930–1945 Smoot-Hawley period.
Subsequent, we think about a pattern break up based mostly explicitly on the extent of US efficient tariffs, utilizing a cutoff of 15%, as proven in Exhibit 7. The outcomes align intently with the interval classifications introduced in Exhibit 6. Actual fairness returns are, on common, optimistic and broadly consistent with long-term averages. Actual bond returns are additionally optimistic throughout high-tariff episodes however are typically nearer to zero when tariffs are comparatively low.
In distinction, gold returns are usually flat throughout high-tariff intervals however extra optimistic when tariffs are decrease. Fairness elements, nevertheless, present a constant value-add over the market portfolio, delivering sturdy returns in each excessive and low tariff environments. Low-volatility methods carried out nicely throughout high-tariff episodes, whereas measurement, worth, and different elements additionally held up robustly.
Exhibit 7: Funding Returns Throughout Tariff Regimes
Baltussen et al. (2023), Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. The efficient US tariff price is measured as customs obligation income as a % of products imports. Efficient US tariff charges are year-end values, replicated throughout July-to-June, centered round December. Components are simulated. Knowledge from January 1875 till December 2024, aside from High quality which begins in 1940, given earlier information shouldn’t be accessible for this issue. The Multi-Issue sequence contains all elements accessible at every time limit. The shaded half for high quality represents the market return over the identical interval. Components are constructed by overlaying long-short portfolios available on the market portfolio. Returns are in annual phrases, in USD. Numbers in parentheses point out the common variety of years per state of affairs.
These outcomes mirror the varied channels by means of which tariffs can affect issue efficiency. Elevated tariffs typically enhance enter prices, compress revenue margins, and heighten macroeconomic uncertainty, circumstances underneath which traders are likely to favor extra resilient, lower-risk firms. This helps low-volatility and high quality issue outperformance. On the similar time, tariffs can weigh extra closely on cyclical and globally built-in corporations, which are sometimes concentrated in worth and small-cap segments. Nonetheless, when these elements are priced at deep reductions, they will nonetheless ship sturdy returns, significantly if coverage shocks reverse or are already priced in, explaining their resilience even in high-tariff regimes.
We subsequent check how funding returns range with commerce openness, measured as exports plus imports relative to GDP. This third pattern break up is proven in Exhibit 8.
Exhibit 8: Funding Returns Throughout Altering US Commerce Openness
Baltussen et al. (2023), Yale BudgetLab and Northern Belief Asset Administration – Quantitative Methods. US Commerce Openness ranges are year-end values, replicated throughout July-to-June, centered round December. Components are simulated. Knowledge from January 1875 till December 2024, aside from High quality which begins in 1940, given earlier information shouldn’t be accessible for this issue. The Multi-Issue sequence contains all elements accessible at every time limit. The shaded half for high quality represents the market return over the identical interval. Components are constructed by overlaying long-short portfolios available on the market portfolio. Returns are in annual phrases, in USD. Numbers in parentheses point out the common variety of years per state of affairs.
In keeping with the earlier two analyses, fairness returns stay comparatively secure throughout completely different commerce openness regimes. Bond returns have a tendency to carry up nicely when commerce openness declines, whereas gold returns are, on common, detrimental in those self same intervals. In contrast, fairness elements persistently add worth over the market portfolio in each excessive and low openness eventualities, with low-volatility methods particularly delivering sturdy efficiency.
Whereas financial outcomes have diversified, fairness markets — and particularly fairness elements — have proven resilience throughout historic tariff regimes. Low-volatility, measurement, and worth methods have persistently added worth, even in periods of heightened protectionism. As commerce tensions rise once more, these long-term patterns supply helpful steerage for constructing sturdy, risk-aware portfolios.
REFERENCES
[1] Bairoch, P. (1972). Free commerce and European financial improvement within the nineteenth century. European Financial Evaluate, 3(3), 211-245.
[2] Bas, M. (2012). Enter-trade liberalization and agency export choices: Proof from Argentina. Journal of Growth Economics, 97(2), 81-493.
[3] Baltussen, G., Swinkels, L., van Vliet, B., & van Vliet, P. (2023). Investing in Deflation, Inflation, and Stagflation Regimes. Monetary Analysts Journal, 1-28.
[4] Baltussen, G., van Vliet, B., & Van Vliet, P. (2023). The cross-section of inventory returns earlier than CRSP, Working Paper.
[5] Baltussen, G., van Vliet, B., & Vidojevic, M. (2024). Navigating inflation – an evaluation of fairness issue efficiency over 150 years. Northern Belief Company.
